A multi-level perspective on the psychosocial working environment.
2. The job – characteristics related to the nature of the job itself, including job demands and the design and content of tasks;
2. How work is managed and organized – how work is planned, supervised and supported, including the quality of interactions at work;
3. Broader policies, practices and procedures that govern work– the wider workplace policies, systems and arrangements that shape the working environment.
This level concerns the inherent characteristics of the job and its tasks – including the demands they impose, the level of responsibility involved, how tasks are designed, and the resources and skills required to perform them. These intrinsic features shape potential exposure to psychosocial hazards through the nature, complexity and intensity of work activities. Such elements are present across all forms of work, including formal and informal employment, and apply to diverse working arrangements, including self-employment, apprenticeships, unpaid domestic and care work, and other forms of work. Every job imposes various types of demands that require sustained effort to be performed effectively. These job demands can be considered in both quantitative and qualitative terms. At the level of the job itself, quantitative demands refer to the inherent amount of work (i.e. workload), while qualitative demands concern the complexity and difficulty of the work. However, how workers experience workload also depends on how it is distributed and assigned in practice, an issue addressed further at the level of work management and organization. Demands can be cognitive, emotional and physical. Cognitive demands involve the need for intellectual effort, including processing information, sustaining concentration, and using memory, reasoning and problem-solving to complete work tasks. Emotional demands require workers to regulate their feelings in response to emotionally demanding situations at work, or adhere to organizationally expected emotions, such as showing empathy, understanding or compassion during interpersonal interactions. Cognitive and emotional demands can interact with physical demands, which refer to the degree of physical effort required in the job, such as standing, walking, carrying or lifting heavy loads, among other tasks. In order to meet job demands, workers need access to adequate resources that enable effective functioning. These encompass a broad range of positively valued organizational, social and physical elements, such as access to information, time and support, as well as appropriate physical resources, including ergonomic tools. Such resources may be embedded in the design of the working environment or made available through supervisory practices and support from co-workers, as discussed further at the next level. Demands should also be aligned with workers’ skills and experience, so that they have the appropriate knowledge and capability to perform work competently. In addition to demands, jobs entail varying levels of responsibility. Responsibility may relate to specific work outputs, to other people (including their safety and health), or to equipment and material assets (ILO). When responsibility is high, workers are accountable for the outcomes of their work and their decisions may carry significant consequences, including financial or material losses, or impacts on the safety and well-being of colleagues, customers or others. While high responsibility can enhance motivation by fostering a sense of ownership and impact, the possibility that mistakes may result in serious consequences can also be a source of strain. Task design is a central dimension of the job. It encompasses the way tasks and work processes are structured, including their range, variety and the extent to which they make use of different skills. Jobs characterized by a broader range of tasks and effective use of workers’ skills tend to be more engaging and supportive of meaningful work. When tasks are structured in ways that allow workers to understand the purpose and impact of their work, workers are more likely to experience their work as meaningful and motivating
This level concerns how work is structured, coordinated and supervised in practice. It includes the definition of roles and expectations; the allocation of tasks and workload, the degree of autonomy afforded to workers; the provision of supervision and feedback and social support, and the quality of interactions that underpin these processes. These elements shape how the inherent characteristics of the job are experienced and can either amplify or mitigate exposure to psychosocial hazards. Although they vary across sectors and settings, they are fundamental features of work organization across occupations, sectors, workplaces and diverse forms of employment. Within the organization of work, roles structure how tasks, expectations and authority are defined and carried out in practice. The way roles are communicated and managed influences workers’ understanding of what is expected of them, the objectives to be achieved and how their work relates to others. Role clarity refers to the extent to which these expectations and responsibilities are clearly articulated. Role conflict may arise where expectations are incompatible or poorly coordinated. Such conflicts can stem from contradictory instructions; competing demands from multiple actors (e.g. supervisors, colleagues or clients); inconsistencies between assigned tasks and formal job descriptions; or tensions between organizational expectations and personal values. Role clarity and role conflict are closely linked to predictability at work, which describes workers’ ability to anticipate tasks, processes and expectations in their daily activities. Predictability depends not only on stable work processes but also on timely information and consultation regarding changes and decisions. The quality of workplace interactions therefore plays a central role, as transparent and trustworthy exchanges facilitate the timely communication of reliable information. Job control or autonomy concerns the degree of discretion afforded to workers in the organization of their work. It includes the freedom to schedule tasks, make decisions and choose the methods for performing them, as well as the ability to exercise initiative and judgement in daily activities. As a feature shaped by managerial practices, autonomy reflects how authority and decision-making are delegated in practice. However, the degree of autonomy afforded may not always be neutral, as discriminatory practices can limit decision-making freedom for certain groups of workers, even when they possess the relevant skills. The degree of autonomy available also depends on how work processes are structured, including task interdependence, externally determined pace, interruptions, or requirements for close coordination. This highlights that autonomy is not exercised in isolation but is often shaped by how workers interact and collaborate within shared work processes. Workload refers to both the amount and the difficulty of tasks and is largely determined by managerial decisions about how work is allocated. Depending on the time available to complete assigned tasks, workers may experience quantitative overload when they are required to do more than can reasonably be completed, or quantitative underload when they are given considerably less work than they are capable of completing. Qualitative overload arises when tasks exceed workers’ skills or capabilities, whereas qualitative underload occurs when tasks fall well below workers’ abilities. Workload allocations may also reflect discriminatory assumptions or stereotypes, leading some workers to be disproportionately assigned routine or lower-status tasks which impact career progression and retention. The pace of work refers to the speed at which tasks must be performed and is closely linked to workload. It may be influenced by performance targets, the speed of automated machines or systems, as well as direct demands from supervisors, colleagues or clients. When a high workload must be completed within a limited time, the required pace of work increases and is often experienced as time pressure. In this context, work intensity describes the overall level of required work demands or the mismatch between work quantity, time and task complexity. Supervision concerns the coordination, guidance and oversight of work activities. Through planning, task allocation, feedback and day-to-day communication, supervisors shape how job demands are experienced and how support is provided, thereby influencing workers’ capacity to perform effectively and maintain well-being. In smaller enterprises, these functions are often combined in owner-managers and exercised through more informal arrangements. In self-employment, supervision is typically internalized and shaped by client expectations or contractual obligations, while in platform-based work coordination and monitoring may be embedded in contractual or digital management systems rather than traditional supervisory roles. The way supervisors carry out these functions is closely linked to their leadership style. Supportive and participative leadership approaches are associated with clearer expectations, constructive feedback and greater access to resources, all of which can buffer the impact of high job demands. In contrast, authoritarian or disengaged approaches may contribute to role ambiguity, excessive monitoring or limited support, which can increase the difficulty of achieving work goals. Support from supervisors constitutes a key organizational resource. This may include practical guidance and problem-solving assistance and responsiveness to emerging difficulties, including recognizing concerns early and facilitating reasonable adjustments where needed. Effective supervision also supports ongoing competence and development by providing recognition, constructive feedback, identifying skill gaps and enabling learning opportunities. The manner in which supervisory authority is exercised further shapes whether power is applied fairly and inclusively, influencing access to opportunities and evaluation processes. Support from co-workers complements supervisory support. Co-worker support, expressed through collaboration, mutual assistance and respect, provides an additional resource that can mitigate work-related stress. Beyond their supportive function, everyday interactions between colleagues and supervisors shape how formal structures of work organization are enacted and experienced in practice.
Organizational policies and practices shape the framework within which work is structured and managed. They define employment arrangements, working time systems, performance and reward processes, and the procedures in place to prevent and address unacceptable behaviour. These governance arrangements operate across different enterprise sizes and forms of work, although their degree of formalization may vary. Employment arrangements are defined by the contractual terms governing the duration of employment, the stability of working hours, wages and employment rights, and access to social protection. Although labour legislation establishes standards affecting working conditions, such as minimum wages and maximum working hours and equal opportunities and treatment in employment, how these protections operate in practice depends on whether workers are effectively covered through their employment arrangements and workplace practices. Different forms of work, including full-time and part-time contracts, temporary and agency work, dependent self-employment and self-employment, as well as work in the informal economy, are associated with differences in working conditions and levels of protection . These differences are reflected in effective coverage by statutory social insurance; access to paid leave and other employment benefits; employment income relative to defined benchmarks (such as minimum wages); the type and duration of employment agreements; actual hours worked and exposure to time-related underemployment; and affiliation to trade unions or coverage by collective agreements. Together, these factors illustrate how employment arrangements shape decent work outcomes and overall quality of employment. For example, both wage levels and the duration of employment influence the adequacy and predictability of earnings. Contracts of shorter or uncertain duration may reduce income stability and limit effective access to non-monetary benefits, including entitlement to and use of paid sick leave and paid annual leave. These differences are particularly relevant for workers with care responsibilities, as eligibility for and take-up of leave and care support often vary by employment status and workplace arrangements. Comprehensive maternity protection and related leave policies, including paternity, parental and long-term care leave, are essential to enabling continued participation in employment while preventing discrimination linked to pregnancy or caregiving responsibilities. Care-related provisions and services, such as childcare and breastfeeding breaks, further support the work-home interface. Effective access to these measures depends not only on social protection systems but also on workplace accommodations that allow workers to exercise their rights in practice. Working time arrangements, which define the number, timing and scheduling (stability or flexibility) of work hours, are another important aspect of the quality of working conditions. Standard schedules typically involve regular daytime hours on weekdays, whereas flexible arrangements may include shift work, night and weekend work and rotating schedules. While flexibility may create opportunities, such arrangements can also result in unsocial hours when work takes place during socially valued times and rest occurs during less valued periods. Unstable or unpredictable patterns in working hours can be more prevalent in certain forms of work, including casual, platform and gig work, as well as contracts with very short or unpredictable hours, such as on-call or zero-hours arrangements. In addition, excessive overtime, especially when unscheduled or without advance warning, can disrupt workers’ personal and family lives, generate out-of-pocket costs (e.g. additional childcare, etc.) if not suitably compensated, and reduce opportunities for rest and recovery. Contractual provisions and workplace practices should therefore specify when overtime may be required, establish rules on notice and compensation, and respect limits consistent with working time legislation to prevent long working hours. In addition to the number and timing of working hours, compatibility between work schedules and workers’ personal requirements, including family-related activities and the balance between working time, rest and social life, is a key aspect of employment quality. Access to childcare and flexible working arrangements, including flexitime and working from home or hybrid work, can support the work-home interface by helping workers manage time and energy to meet demands both at work and outside work. However, flexible arrangements can also blur boundaries between professional and personal life, allowing work demands to intrude into private time. Digital communication may reinforce expectations of constant availability and intensify work, underscoring the importance of protecting rest time through accompanying measures. Practices for managing organizational change influence how restructuring, changes in organizational culture, and the introduction of new technologies are experienced by workers. Whilst these may be triggered by external pressures, organizations remain responsible for how change is planned, communicated and implemented. Choices about the timing and scope of change, the redistribution of tasks and responsibilities, and the support provided during the transition can positively or negatively affect workloads, clarity of roles, social support, trust in management and, in some cases, job insecurity. Change processes characterized by lack of transparency, poor communication, limited consultation and low predictability tend to heighten uncertainty and stress, whereas those marked by clear information, visible leadership and meaningful worker involvement can buffer negative effects and promote more sustainable adjustment. Both employment arrangements and organizational change processes shape workers’ perceptions of employment stability and predictability. In this context, job insecurity, understood as the anticipation or concern about involuntary job loss, may arise across diverse forms of work and sectors. Beyond economic conditions, job insecurity is shaped by organizational decisions on contracts, staffing, working time and communication. Surveillance and digital monitoring refer to management’s capacity to monitor, record and track workers’ performance, behaviour and personal characteristics. Although surveillance has long existed, digital technologies, remote work and platform-based labour present new means for expanding its scope and frequency. In algorithmic management systems, work is allocated, monitored and evaluated through continuous data collection, real-time metrics and automated decision-making. Such practices can support coordination, fairness, productivity and performance management, thereby benefiting both employers and workers. However, they become problematic when they are intrusive, undermine autonomy and trust, or exceed what is necessary for work organization. Risks also arise when surveillance systems collect sensitive personal data or generate biased or unfair assessments that disproportionately affect specific groups of workers.
Rewards, performance management, opportunities for development and recruitment processes influence perceptions of fairness, recognition and motivation. Rewards may include financial remuneration, job security, promotion opportunities and access to training and development. Remuneration systems should be grounded in objective job evaluation and equal remuneration principles, without discrimination on grounds such as sex and applied consistently across comparable roles. Performance management systems often inform decisions on pay progression, promotion, development and, in some cases, disciplinary action. To be effective and fair, these systems should rely on job-relevant, transparent and consistently applied criteria, and be supported by constructive feedback. Effective supervision plays a critical role in this process, as regular, objective and clear feedback helps guide development efforts. Furthermore, systems that identify skill gaps should be matched with development activities that support both current and future performance. Fair and valid procedures for hiring and promotion are equally essential. Selection criteria should clearly map onto job requirements and be applied consistently to ensure equality of opportunity. Beyond fairness, these processes help ensure that roles are matched to the skills and competencies needed to meet organizational demands. While hiring and promotion opportunities depend on the availability of suitable positions and organizational needs, decisions should be based on objective, job-related criteria and applied without discrimination. Increasingly, artificial intelligence and algorithmic tools are used in performance assessment, hiring and promotion. While these technologies may enhance efficiency and consistency, they raise concerns regarding transparency, bias, privacy and limited human oversight. When evaluation and reward systems lack transparency, consistency or equity, they may undermine organizational justice and increase work-related stress. An OSH policy and management system provides a structured approach for identifying, preventing and controlling workplace hazards to protect workers’ safety, health and wellbeing. It helps organizations ensure compliance with regulations, reduce accidents, illnesses and costs, and foster a culture of continuous improvement and accountability. Procedures to prevent and address violence and harassment at work are a core element of organizational responsibility. Violence and harassment encompass unacceptable behaviours and practices, or threats thereof, whether a single occurrence or repeated, that aim at, result in, or are likely to result in physical, psychological, sexual or economic harm. Violence and harassment may also be gender-based when directed at persons because of their sex or gender, or when they disproportionately affect persons of a particular sex or gender. Violence and harassment are closely linked to broader features of work organization and workplace culture, including power dynamics, workload pressures and employment insecurity. Harmful behaviours and actions may occur vertically in supervisory relationships, horizontally among colleagues, or through interactions with third parties such as clients or members of the public. In doing so, they can influence task allocation, access to resources and cooperation among colleagues, while certain job contexts, particularly client-facing roles or work involving valuables, may increase exposure to risks. In this way, they both shape and are shaped by other psychosocial risk factors. These forms of abuse often co-occur or escalate if left unaddressed. Whether such behaviours are prevented, normalized or effectively addressed depends on the presence, clarity and credibility of organizational policies and procedures. Workplace governance arrangements therefore play a central role in shaping accountability and supporting prevention.
Consultation and worker participation are core organizational practices and central pillars of OSH risk management, particularly for psychosocial hazards, which are often less identifiable. Through consultation and participation mechanisms, including joint OSH committees and the designation of workers’ OSH representatives, workers can provide valuable insights and influence decisions that affect their working conditions, safety and health. Meaningful participation supports early identification of problems, strengthens trust in management decisions and enhances the legitimacy and effectiveness of organizational interventions.
Beyond formal policies and procedures, the effectiveness of organizational arrangements depends on how they are enacted and experienced in practice, which is shaped by organizational culture and climate. Organizational culture encompasses shared values, norms and expectations that influence how rules are interpreted, how behaviour is regulated and whether psychological safety and health are prioritized alongside performance objectives. Within this broader context, psychosocial safety climate reflects shared perceptions of the extent to which organizational policies, practices and procedures protect and promote psychological safety and health. A strong psychosocial safety climate signals that psychological health is not subordinate to productivity pressures and that concerns can be raised without fear of negative consequences. Closely related is organizational justice, understood as the perceived fairness of decision-making processes, resource distribution and interpersonal treatment within the organization. Perceptions of fairness and transparency influence trust in organizational systems, the legitimacy of managerial decisions and the willingness of workers to engage in reporting and participation processes. Coherence between these principles and everyday organizational practices is equally important. Inclusive organizational arrangements, including accessible environments, reasonable accommodation, equitable leave and flexibility provisions, and policies that recognize diverse working situations, shape whether workers can participate safely and with dignity. Such environments help mitigate psychosocial risks by reducing exclusion, unequal exposure and structural disadvantage across different groups of workers.
Interactions with the physical environment and work equipment
The overall working environment includes not only physical, biological and chemical hazards but also the design and condition of workspaces, including layout, ergonomics, hygiene and the availability, suitability and maintenance of tools, equipment and other resources needed to carry out tasks safely. These elements interact closely with psychosocial factors and can either exacerbate or mitigate impacts on workers’ safety, health and organizational performance. When workers face dangerous tasks, poorly maintained equipment, limited space, insufficient lighting or excessive noise, they are exposed not only to direct physical risks but may also become mentally preoccupied with potential harm, increasing stress and reducing attentional capacity. Working alone, whether remotely or in isolated locations, similarly raises physical and psychological risks, particularly where access to assistance from colleagues or emergency support is limited. Risks also arise in traumatic, unstable or conflict- and disaster-affected environments,where physical danger is combined with high emotional demands. Workers’ perceptions of risk are shaped not only by the frequency, duration and severity of hazards, but also by their confidence in managing them, including trust in safety safeguards such as alarms, communication systems, workplace layout and timely supervisory support. For example, the physical layout can influence exposure to violence and harassment, particularly in settings involving contact with risk groups. Measures such as secure entry systems, surveillance, locks and alarms can reduce incidents and strengthen feelings of safety. Well-designed physical environments and equipment therefore act as protective resources that enhance safety, control and effective task performance, while poor design can amplify psychosocial risks. This highlights the importance of considering how physical conditions interact with job design, work organization and organizational policies to support both safety and well-being.
Comments
Post a Comment